Common Reed - Phragmites australis

Family: Poaceae (Grass family)^[E-flora]

Pollution, Plant, Fibre, Remediation

Habitat / Range
"Marshes, ponds, lakeshores and ditches in the lowland, steppe and montane zones; infrequent in S and NE BC; circumpolar, N to SW NT, E to NF and NS and S to IN, LA, TX and MX; Eurasia, Trinidad, C America." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]} "The species grows from southern Canada to the central United States, to California, Louisiana, Florida, the West Indies, and from Mexico to Chile and Argentina. Phragmites also grows widely in Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia." ^{[Daniel F. Austin]} "It grows throughout the world in areas with saturated soils or standing water 2.5 m deep or less. The water can be fresh or moderately saline. Nearly any soil from peat to sand is tolerated." ^{[Saline Agriculture]}

Origin Status: Ssp. americanus = Native
Ssp. australis = Exotic ^[E-flora]

SUBTAXA PRESENT IN BC Phragmites australis ssp. americanus Phragmites australis ssp. australis

USDA Flower Colour: White
USDA Blooming Period: Summer
USDA Fruit/Seed characteristics:

Colour: White

Present from Summer to Fall ^{[USDA-E-flora]}

"Phragmites australis is a PERENNIAL growing to 3.6 m (11ft) by 3 m (9ft) at a fast rate.
It is hardy to zone (UK) 5 and is not frost tender. It is in flower from Jul to September, and the seeds ripen from Aug to October. The flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) and are pollinated by Wind.^[PFAF]
Suitable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils and can grow in very alkaline and saline soils.
It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. It prefers moist or wet soil and can grow in water. The plant can tolerate maritime exposure."^[PFAF]

Description

"General: Perennial, tufted grass from fibrous roots, semi-rhizomatous; stems stout, erect, 200-300 cm tall." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
"Leaves: Sheaths smooth, loose, twisting in the wind and aligning the blades on one side; blades flat, mostly 20-40 cm long, 10-40 mm wide, usually breaking from the stems by winter; ligules half membrane and half hairs, the innovations mostly membranous, the fringe of hairs late in developing, 1.5-3 mm long." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
"Flowers: Inflorescence a large feathery panicle, 15-35 cm long, often purplish, but later straw-coloured; spikelets generally 3- to 6-flowered, 10-15 mm long; lower glumes 4-6 mm long, the upper ones about 6-9 mm long; lower lemmas hairy, unawned, 9-12 mm long, the upper ones generally smaller but with awns often as long as the bodies, smooth, but exceeded by the silky hairs of the rachillas; paleas scarcely half as long as the lemmas; lodicules scarcely 1 mm long; anthers about 2 mm long." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}

Similar Species: Arundo donax is easily confused with Phragmites australis [Ratsch EPP]

Introduction
"The genus Phragmites is one of the most widely distributed genera in the world (Allred 2010) and is found across most of North America, excluding the Yukon, Alaska, Labrador, and Nunavut (USDA 2010). This is an easily recognized genus of tall (to 3 m), rhizomatous or stoloniferous grasses that form dense stands in saline or freshwater wetlands, including cattail marshes, sloughs, ponds and ditches. The taxonomy of the genus is not yet clear. However, in BC, two subspecies are now recognized. These are:" [CPD-E-flora]

1) the introduced Phragmites australis subsp. australis (European common reed), an aggressive, invasive subspecies of European origin that is present along the Atlantic coast (where it is invading saltmarshes) and in several locations in British Columbia (Snyder 2009, Martin 2003, Lomer pers. comm. 2011, Brown pers. comm. 2011, Marr pers. comm. 2011). These include Vernon, Osoyoos, Richmond, Burnaby, Galiano Island and Metchosin.

2) the native Phragmites australis subsp. americanus, native to fens, bogs and river shores within its North American range (Catling 2005) and more widespread in BC.

The two subspecies are separated on the basis of glume length, culm/stem colour, leaf colour, and habitat. Identification is based on a collection of characters. See the identification section below for more details.

Populations of the native subspecies in eastern North America are reported as declining, while populations of the introduced subspecies are spreading throughout North America--this is a successful estuarine invader (Myerson 2009). Research on Phragmites shows that "the native type is a low-nutrient specialist, with a more efficient photosynthetic mechanisms and lower N demand, whereas the introduced type requires nearly four times more nitrogen than the native type to be an effective competitor" (Mozdzer and Zieman 2010). This suggests that anthropogenic modification of wetlands has provided the conditions necessary for success of the introduced type in some regions. Hybridization between the two subspecies is not widely reported but has been demonstrated through hand-pollination by Myerson et al. (2009).

Hazards:

• “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). [HMH Duke]
• "Dioscorides stated that the flower tufts of Phragmites australis—like those of Arundo donax—cause deafness if they get into the ear (1.114)." ^{[Ratsch EPP]}

Edible Uses

• Root: "Raw or cooked like potatoes[2, 13, 74, 102, 106, 183]. It contains up to 5% sugar. The flavour and texture are best when the root is young and still growing[144]. It can be dried, ground coarsely and used as a porridge[12, 46, 62]. In Russia they are harvested and processed into starch[269].^[PFAF] "Rhizomes cooked like potatoes" ^[EMNMPV.11] "The rootstock is edible, and has a sweet flavour. Dry them first, then grind them coarsely and make porridge of them (Loewenfeld)." ^{[DPL Watts]} It is claimed that the Indians ate the roots of the reed, but they were fonder of the sugar it produced.... a pasty substance exudes which hardens into gum. This the Indians collect and compress into balls to be eaten at pleasure. Dr. F. V. Coville says the Indians of Mohave Desert collect the plants in marshes, dry the stalks, grind them, and sift out the flour. This contains so much sugar that when placed near a fire, it swells, turns brown, and is then eaten like taffy. Of course this suggests roasted marshmallows. Dr. Palmer records a former practice of the Indians, who cut the reeds after the sugar had hardened, and placed them on blankets; attcr they had enough, the sugar was shaken oil and dissolved in water, forming a sweet, nourishing drink.^[EWP]
  • Beverage: Lugen (roots and rhizomes of Phragmites communis, 30 %)^{[Liu DCH]}
• Seed: "Raw or cooked[257]. It can be ground into a powder and used as a flour[57, 62, 102, 106]. The seed is rather small and difficult to remove from the husk but it is said to be very nutritious[183]."^[PFAF] "The seeds have been made into porridge..." ^{[Ratsch EPP]} "The seeds are hard to extract from the chaff, but they were cooked and eaten by people from New England to Oregon and south to the Sonoran Desert and probably elsewhere (Fernald et al. 1958, Mabberley 1997, Hodgson 2001). Sometimes the chaff was allowed to remain on the seeds. Again in New Jersey, the Whittrocks recorded that local indigenous people did not remove the hull, but cooked the whole grain into a reddish gruel, colored by the hull. They added that it was “wholesome as a food, though not too appetizing in appearance” (Fernald et al. 1958)." ^{[Daniel F. Austin]} "Also, try reed seeds cooked in stews and soups." ^{[Meuninck EWPUH]}
• Stem Bases: The stem bases of reed grass (Phragmites australis; syn. P. communis) were occasionally eaten in spring by some Chipewyan people, but the plant is rare within their range (Marles, 1984).^{[Turner&Kuhnlein]}
  • Sugar: A sugar is extracted from the stalks or wounded stems[2, 5, 62, 95]. A sweet liquorice-like taste[95], it can be eaten raw or cooked[62]. The stems can be boiled in water and then the water boiled off in order to obtain the sugar[178]. A sugary gum that exudes from the stems can be rolled into balls and eaten as sweets[183]. A powder extracted from the dried stems can be moistened and roasted like marshmallow[62, 95, 102, 183].^[PFAF] "...the sweet pith can be used to make fermented beverages (beer)" [Ratsch EPP] "...Indians of the Mohave Desert collect the plants in marshes, dry the stalks, grind them, and sift out the flour. This contains so much sugar that when placed near a fire, it swells, turns brown, and is then eaten like taffy" [EWP]
    • "Stems are gathered before flowering, dried in the sun, and ground or beaten into flour. The finer parts are sifted out and moistened to make a gummy mass that is roasted by a fire until it swells and browns slightly." ^{[Daniel F. Austin]}
  • Exudate: "There is also a sweet edible gum exuded from damage caused by insects (the mealy plum aphid, Hyalopterus arundinis). Although Hodgson (2001) suggested that the use of the sweet extract from Phragmites called manna by the Europeans and cadece (juice of the reed) by the Cochimis was originally restricted to the California area, its use seems to have been more widespread." ^{[Daniel F. Austin]} "The honeydew deposited by aphids on the stalks of cattails, tules, and common cane (probably Phragmites australis) was collected by the Owens Valley Paiute, Panamint Shoshone, Chemehuevi, Tubatulabal, and Salinan and made into sugary balls or cakes. Perhaps Honey Lake in northeastern California received its name from the honeydew the Indians collected along its shores." ^{[Anderson TTW]} "...panoche, a type of sugar that is deposited by aphids on the stalks of reed grass (Phragmites australis) that the coastal Chumash traded for with the Chumash, Yokuts, and other Indian groups in the interior of California (King 2000:33)." ^{[Gamble CWEC]} In the fall, the leaves and stems may become encrusted with grayish exudate. This exudate, actually honeydew (excreta of whitefly and aphids), was obtained from stalks. ^{[Vizgirdas WPSN]}
• Young Shoots: Raw or cooked[61, 62, 102, 179]. They are best if used before the leaves form, when they are really delicious[144]. They can be used like bamboo shoots[183]. The partly unfolded leaves can be used as a potherb and the Japanese dry young leaves, grind them into a powder and mix them with cereal flour when making dumplings[183]. The stems are reported to contain 4.8 g protein, 0.8 g fat, 90.0 g total carbohydrate, 41.2 g fiber, and 4.4 g ash[269].^[PFAF] "the young shoots are a good vegetable" [Ratsch EPP] "...young sprouts eaten as a delicacy in Japan (HHB)." ^{[HMH Duke]} "young shoots, especially where protected from light, “made an excellent pickle” (Fernald et al. 1958)." ^{[Daniel F. Austin]} "I prefer to cut open the reed shoot to chew and suck the young shoots, then spit out the pulp. Prepare the plant immediately after picking, as delays in preparation make for a tough, stringy meal. Simply chop the new shoots into a manageable size and place them in a steamer. They are ready to eat in 5 minutes." ^{[Meuninck EWPUH]}
  • Nutritional Info: (Dry Shoots, per 100g); 5 g water, 5.2g protein, 0.9g Fat, 89g carbohydrate, 32g crude fiber, 5.8g ash ^{[Turner, Kuhnlein]}

Other Uses

• Dye: "A light green dye is obtained from the flowers[6, 115]."^[PFAF]
• Basketry: "The leaves are used in basket making and for weaving mats etc[169, 238].^"[PFAF]
• Furfural: "The plant is rich in pentosans and may be used for the production of furfural - the nodes and sheaths yield 6.6% whilst the underground parts over 13% of furfural[269]. The pentosan content increases throughout the growing period and is maximum in the mature reed[269]."^[PFAF]
• Fuel: "In Sweden, extensive stands of Phragmites have been suggested as an alternative fuel for winter heating. This reed has about 40 percent (by weight) of the energy content of heating oil." ^{[Saline Agriculture]}
• Building Material: "The stems are useful in the production of homogeneous boards[269]. They can also be processed into a fine fibrous material suitable as a filler in upholstery[269]. The stems have many uses. They are used for thatching roofs[1, 46, 74, 106]. It can last for 100 years[169]. The stems and leaves are also used for building dwellings, lattices, fences, arrows by Indians, and for weaving mats, carrying nets, basket making, insulation, fuel, as a cork substitute etc[13, 74, 99, 102, 115, 257, 269]."^[PFAF] Stems used for arrows(0)[Ethchumash] " "The Navajo make the stalks into prayer poles, and many cultures use them to make arrow shafts." [Ratsch EPP] "Useful for bedding of animals, and also for thatching, for this is the most durable of all for roofing. It may be the most expensive, but it has a life of up to a hundred years, provided the roof pitch is forty-five degrees or steeper (Jenkins. 1976).... Coopers at one time used specially grown reeds to put between the staves to make a barrel watertight. Delivery men apparently carried supplies of reeds in case barrels sprang a leak during transit (Brill)." ^{[DPL Watts]}
  • Examples: "In the early 1980s, for example, I worked with local enumerators who had recorded how many bundles of Phragmites reeds were being cut from a long, narrow wetland that was soon to be fenced within a national park on the South Africa/Mozambique border. Over 19,000 bundles of reeds were sold per year. We also knew that the height of the reeds was a key factor and that if reed stands were too short (less than 3m high), they were unsuitable for harvesting for local building purposes." ^{[Cunningham AE]}
  • As Rafters: "The roof of the hut is supported by the ridge pole, a large thick beam to which the smaller poles that serve as rafters are tied with grass fiber rope. Large beams are of eucalyptus or ocasionally of kishwar (Buddleia) or alder (Alnus). The rafters are usually the hard stems of Phragmites which grows in wet places and is sometimes cultivated. Roofing materials may be either thatch or tiles, and ocasionally sheet metal (ealamina)."^{[Gade PMLP]}
• Fibre: The stem contains over 50 percent cellulose and is useful in the manufacture of pulps for rayon and paper[269]. The fibre from the leaves and stems is used for making paper[189]. The fibre is 0.8 - 3.0 mm long and 5.0 - 30.5µm in diameter. The stems and leaves are harvested in the summer, cut into usable pieces and soaked for 24 hours in clear water. They are then cooked for 2 hours with lye and beaten in a blender. The fibre makes a khaki paper[189]. A fibre obtained from the plant is used for making string[95, 106]. The flowering stalks yield a fibre suitable for rope making[269].^[PFAF]
  In ancient Egypt, reed was important in the manufacture of baskets and mats, both the flexible stems and leaves being utilized(Wendrich,2000).This use has continued until the present. ^{[BiblePlants]} "Both stems and leaves were used to make cordage for nets and snares (Ebeling 1986)." ^{[Daniel F. Austin]}
  • Papermaking: "In Romania, 125,000 tons of Phragmites are harvested in the Danube delta each year for use in papermaking. The pulp from these reeds is blended with wood pulp to give a stronger final product." ^{[Saline Agriculture]} "The manufaeture of pulp from reed on an industrial seale was known and used already at the turn of the eentury, and it has been eonsidered, abandoned, and re-eonsidered several times. The main problem has been the preparation of the raw material (harvesting, transportation, storage, elimination ofleaves, knots, and tops, ete.). Alkaline pulping processes have appeared most favorable. Reed pulp is suitable as ablend with other pulps for writing and printing papers. It has been produeed mainly in China, North Korea, Romania, Russia, and Iraq (Wiedermann 1987). In China most of the reed pulp is made by the bisulfite process. Parenchyma and epidermal eells are removed by screening in order to improve runnability and paper properties (Chenwu 1981)." ^{[Sisko FA]}
• Misc:
  • "...the species is used commercially to make paper, cellophane, cardboard, synthetic textiles, fiberboard, fuel, alcohol, insulation, and fertilizer (Hocking 1997)." ^{[Daniel F. Austin]}
  • "The reed can be used also for the preparation of absolute alcohol, feed yeast and lactic acid[269]." ^[PFAF]
  • "The plant can be used as a cork substitute[74]. No further details." ^[PFAF]
  • "The plant is mixed with mud to make a plaster for walls[145]." ^[PFAF]
  • Reeds burn furiously, causing water in the stem of the reed to expand rapidly and explode, producing a sound like a rifle report. ^{[BiblePlants]}
  • "Pens for writing on parchment were cut and fashioned from the thin stems of this reed[269], whilst the stems were also used as a linear measuring device[269]." ^[PFAF]
  • Boats: Another pastime there was to make boats out of the leaves. “You took the leaf with its hard little stalk still on it and folded each end back. Then you split the folded ends into three and tucked one of the outside ones through the other outside ones, leaving the middle one flat for the little boat to sail on, and the stalk would stick up in the middle like a real little mast” (Marshall) ^{[DPL Watts]}
  • Instrument: The simplest, and probably the most ancient, musical instrument is made from reeds, and called variously Pan-pipes, Shepherd’s Pipes (though these were usually made from oat straw), or Syrinx. The reeds are of different sizes, placed side by side, each stopped at the bottom end (F G Savage). Children in the Fen country used to put the leaf between their palms and blow, to make a piercing whistle (though that is a universal occupation, using virtually any leaf). ^{[DPL Watts]} "“Reed” in woodwinds is a slightly different meaning from all the others. There, a segment of the stem is removed and thinned so that air moving over it in the confined space of the instrument will cause it to vibrate. Sounds from that vibration are amplified by the remainder of the instrument to produce the music. Occasionally, the reeds are made of Arundo donax, another reed; however, the preferred “reed” is from Phragmites. No other plant produces sounds as pleasing as it, and synthetic products are usually not acceptable to the musicians who demand excellence in sounds. An ancient grass used to make Greek panpipes is still the best." ^{[Daniel F. Austin]}
  • Pipe: "The Serí Indians of northern Mexico used fragments of the reed to smoke wild tobacco species (see Nicotiana spp.)" ^{[Ratsch EPP]} "In the AD 1325–1400 period, groups occupying Red Bow Cliff Dwelling, Arizona, fashioned cigarettes from reedgrass (Phragmites australis) stems to smoke a native tobacco (Nicotiana attenuata; Adams 1990)." ^{[Anderson Ethnobiology]}
    

Medicinal Uses

• "The medicinal parts are the stem and the rhizome....Reed Herb and rhizome are the stem (base) and rhizome of Phragmites communis." ^[PDR]
• Root: Used in Chinese medicine to "Treat arthritis, jaundice, pulmonary abscess." ^[CRNAH] "In the Bahamas and Cuba, a root decoction of Phragmites is taken as a diuretic and antiseptic. On North Caicos the root is boiled with Chiococca alba to relieve “pain in the back” (kidneys) (Roig 1945, Morton 1981)." ^{[Daniel F. Austin]}
  • Combinations: "Martin Martin, in the course of his Hebridean travels in 1695, learned of a cough cure in Lewis in the Outer Hebrides made from boiling together the roots of reeds and of nettles and leaving the liquid to ferment by adding yeast to it.46" ^[MPFT]
• Leaves: "Used in the treatment of bronchitis and cholera, the ash of the leaves is applied to foul sores[218]."^[PFAF]
  
• Flowers: "A decoction is used in the treatment of cholera and food poisoning[218]. The ashes are styptic[218]."^[PFAF]
  • Effect: "Arresting bleeding and detoxicating." ^{[Xinrong TCM]}
  • Indication: "Epistaxis, metrorrhagia, metrostaxis, vomiting and diarrhea." ^{[Xinrong TCM]}
• Honeydew: "The honeydew was given to pneumonia patients to loosen phlegm and soothe pain in lungs." ^{[Vizgirdas WPSN]}
• Unspecified Parts:
  • Tea: "The Navajo use a tea as an emetic agent to treat certain stomach and skin problems (Mayes and Lacy 1989, 101*)." ^{[Ratsch EPP]}
  • "As antidote, antipyretic, in cholera, cough, arthritis, earaches" ^{[UNIDO Asia]}
    

Medicinal

• Arabians make a cooling and antiemetic beverage from the plant (GHA).^[MPB-Duke]
• Chinese use the plant for leukemia (JLH).^[MPB-Duke]
• Africans use the sugary exudate for chest pain and pneumonia (BIB).^[MPB-Duke]
• Cape Africans apply powdered seed to burns (BIB).^[MPB-Duke]
• Chinese used as a remedy for hiccups and poisoning from eating stale seafood (BIB).^[MPB-Duke]
• East Asians use the plant for rheumatic ailments (WOI).^[MPB-Duke]
• Hebrides inhabitants make a cough medicine from reed and stinging nettle (AH2).^[MPB-Duke]
• Lebanese pack fractures with broken reeds (HJP). Orientals make a packing of reeds as a splint for fractures (BIB). ^[MPB-Duke]

Indications (Common Reed) — Cancer (f; JLH); Cancer, breast (f; JLH; PH2); Diabetes (f; HHB; PH2; WOI); Fever (f; EFS; HHB; JFM; PH2; WOI); Fracture (f; DEM; WOI); Leukemia (f; HHB; JLH; PH2); Rheumatism (f; EFS; WOI); Water Retention (f; EFS; HHB; JFM; PH2). ^{[HMH Duke]} "For toothache, earache, remedy for hiccoughs, seafood poisoning, parched throat with fever, acute bronchitis with mucus, acute gastritis with vomiting, urinary tract infections, blood or stones in urine, eruptive fevers like measles and chickenpox." ^[CRNAH]

Pharmacology

• Root: "It is taken internally in the treatment of diarrhoea, fevers, vomiting, coughs with thick dark phlegm, lung abscesses, urinary tract infections and food poisoning (especially from sea foods)[238, 257]. Externally, it is mixed with gypsum and used to treat halitosis and toothache[238]. The root is harvested in the autumn and juiced or dried for use in decoctions[238]." ^[PFAF]
  • Anticancer: "Phragmites (Rhizoma phragmites), or Reed rhizome, is aquatic grass species whose rhizomes are used in herbal preparations and contain multiple vitamin A, several B vitamins, ascorbic acid, and several triterpenes, which may account for its anti-cancer activities (NCCAM 2009)." Used for liver cancer. ^{[Cho SCCCM]}

Phytochemicals

Secaclavine "("Alkaloid X"),m.p. 210" (dec.),[a]: -167" (chloroform), occurs together with festuclavine, agroclavine, and elymoclavine, in the ergots of Japanese Agropyrum, Elymus, Phragmites, and Phalaris species (797, 809). It can also be isolated from the ergot of Spanish rye and from the culture of these ergot fungi. Its UV-spectrum is typical of indole derivatives, and it is presumed to be an isomer of dihydroelymoclavine (797)." ^{[AlkChem&PhysioV.7]}

The rootstock contains N,N-DMT, 5-MeO-DMT, bufotenine, and gramine (Wassel et al. 1985). [Ratsch EPP] Major root constituents are glycosides, protein, asparagin.49 ^[CRNAH]

Unspecified Part: "Glycosides, protein, asparagin, ferulic acid, colxol, tricin, asparamide, coniferaldehyde, syringaldehyde, 4-hydroxyinnamic acid, vanillic acid, 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde, 2,5-dimethoxypara-quinone, polysaccharide, serotonin, tricin.302" ^[CRNAH]

• Flavonoids: including tricine, luteolin, chrysoeriol, rutin, isoquercitrin
• Vitamin A (5 mg/100 gm in the fresh foliage) ^[PDR]
• Ascorbic acid (vitamin C, 100 mg/100 gm in the fresh foliage) ^[PDR]
• B vitamins ^[PDR]
• Sugar: in particular saccharose, inverted sugar (relatively high content in the rhizome) ^[PDR]
• Triterpenes: including beta-amyrin, taraxerol, taraxerone ^[PDR]
• DMT (N, N-Dimethyltryptamine) - Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Stcud. [DMT. Roots) (Wassel el al. 1985) ^{[Otto 1994]} One carefully studied individual is Phragmites australis, which is particularly rich in DMT in the root system, the rhizome. ^[TIHKAL] Rhizome - DMT, 5-MeO-DMT ^{[Schultes,Hoffman POG]} DMT - "tlc (as P. communis) by J. Appleseed showed it to be weak to absent." ^{[Trout SST]}
• "Succinyl has also been reported to occur in minor amounts in flowering tops of Phragmites australis (Gramineae) as cyanidin 3-[6-(succinyl)-glucoside],221" ^{[Andersen FCBA]}
• Swertiajaponin ( 3’-O-Gentiobioside and 3’-O-Glucoside) ^{[Andersen FCBA]}
  

Psychopharmacology of DMT in Phragmites

"Reports about the psychoactive effects of Phragmites australis are based almost exclusively on experiences with ayahuasca analogs that are composed of the root extract, lemon juice, and Peganum harmala seeds. Unpleasant side effects (nausea, vomiting, diarrhea) are usually mentioned (Eros 1995)." [Ratsch EPP]

• JOHNNY APPLESEED RESPONDS (Fall 1995)
  • "I dug some common reed (Phragmites australis) this winter in February and did an alkaloid extraction using the acid/base method. The first extraction yielded enough for a pyro-assay, which resulted in a faintly perceptible “plus- 1.5.” [Note: Define +1.5 for reader] A later oral assay was about the same. The TLC plate shows a very small quantity of 5-MeO-DMT. This may be another one of those cases where there are alkaloids present, but in too small a quantity to make extraction worthwhile. I am sure there are varietal differences as well." — JOHNNY APPLESEED ^[Ayahuasca]

Experiences

• ADMIXTURE PLANT (Spring 1995)
  • "I boiled a tea of Phragmites australis root (45 grams) for about 15 minutes, then threw in the usual dose of Peganum harmala (3 grams). It was the most sublime, pristine experience of my life" — ANONYMOUS ^[Ayahuasca]
• PHRAGMITES AUSTRALIS: POSITIVE (Summer 1995)
  • "Our first trials with Phragmites australis combined with Peganum harmala were not quite what we were hoping for. The standard 3X lemon juice extract of 60 grams P. australis plus 3 grams P. harmala were taken after a 24 hour fast. It was definitely entheogenic, with the predominant sensation of 5-MeODMT. There was very little visual effect, but there was definitely a lot of clear spatial energy movement through the body. The experience peaked at a “plus-two” about an hour after ingesting the P. australis portion of the brew. At this point my fellow psychonaut suddenly felt the urge to make a beeline for the bathroom where he puked and shit at the same time. (Quite a predicament indeed!) Two hours into the trip I took a booster equivalent to 30 grams of P. australis and 1.5 grams of P. harmala. This pushed me into a solid “plus-three,” which lasted for several hours. It came in waves of intensity. I experienced some very unpleasant nausea and somatic discomfort, which set the tone of the trip. I suspect the lemon juice may have been a factor in the side-effects, perhaps it’s not necessary in this brew. For future trials I plan to investigate other possible means of ingestion. — EROS It seems unlikely that lemon juice would cause the side-effects noted. Have a tall glass of lemonade and rethink this." — DAVID AARDVARK ^[Ayahuasca]
• ANOTHER POSITIVE - PHRAGMITES AUSTRALIS REPORT (Summer 1996)
  • "I have been pursuing Phragmites australis “giant reed” as a Ayahuasca analogue ingredient since your Spring 1995 issue, and can now report good results. I encourage your readers to experience it, as my journeys have been excellent and like those described by the anonymous contributor to ER. P. australis should by no means be written off, as it is kinder than true ayahuasca. Yet it is different. My present recipe is 3 grams of Peganum harmala, following p. 57 of OTT’S Ayahuasca Analogues closely. With this small volume of lime juice and incidental water, there has been no nausea. Just boil it 15 minutes and filter it twice with a cotton T-shirt. Increase the water and you will experience the trouble of thinking about your body and will probably blow chow. The P. australis rhizome (50 wet grams; a higher dose to be tested soon) is simply boiled 20–30 minutes and tastes just fine. This is about 2.5 feet of rhizome if you can get it dried out. If you drink only the extracted root portion at least, there have been absolutely no bad physical side-effects to date with 9 tests on four people." — ANONYMOUS, CA ^[Ayahuasca]
• “I boiled 45 g of roots of Phragmites australis for 15 minutes to make a tea. I then ingested a normal dose of Peganum harmala, 3 g. It was the most exceptional and pristine experience of my life and definitely the most powerful trip with an ayahuasca analog that I had had to that point. Very visual, with awe-inspiring insights into myself and the world. God, what a day! Six hours full of mind-shattering insights and revelations. Unbelievable sensations of intense beauty. Visions of golden worlds beyond any conception. . . . I was emotionally deeply moved by the exquisiteness and beauty of the experience. . . . There was no nausea or other side effects.” ANONYMOUS “PHRAGMITES AUSTRALIS” (1995, 39) ^{[Ratsch EPP]}

Cultivation

Biomass: "The common reed can provide a large quantity of biomass and this is used in a wide variety of ways as listed below. Annual yields of 40 - 63 tonnes per hectare have been reported[269]. The plant is also converted into alcohol (for use as a fuel), is burnt as a fuel and is made into fertilizer[238]."^[PFAF]
Soil Stabilizer: "The plant has a very vigorous and running rootstock, it is useful for binding the soil along the sides of streams etc[115]. It is planted for flood control since it stablizes the banks and gradually builds up soil depth, thus raising the level of the bank.^"[PFAF]
Manure: "Freshly cut shoots are a good green manure[74] (Does this man as a soil mulch?[K]). The inflorescences are used as brooms[74]." ^[PFAF] "The Iroquois mixed Phragmites with bottle-brush grass (Elymus hystrix) to make “corn medicine,” a mixture in which they soaked corn kernels before planting them." ^{[Daniel F. Austin]}

Cultivation details
"A very easily grown plant that thrives in deep moisture retentive soils such as marshes and swamps, whilst it also grows well along the sides of streams, lakes and ponds, in shallow water, ditches and wet wastelands[162, 200, 269]. Plants are tolerant of moderately saline water[169, 269]. The plant is reported to tolerate an annual precipitation in the range of 31 to 241cm, an annual temperature in the range of 6.6 to 26.6°C and a pH of 4.8 to 8.2[269]. Plants are hardy to about -20°c[200]. This species is very fast growing with a very vigorous and invasive running rootstock that can be 10 metres or more long, it can form very large stands in wetlands[200, 238, 260]. Difficult to eradicate once established, it is unsuitable for planting into small spaces[200, 238, 269]. The flowering heads are often used in dried flower arrangements[238]. There are some named forms, selected for their ornamental value[238]." ^[PFAF] "The reed is the largest grass in central Europe, where it is often encountered along the shores of lakes (in the water) in so-called reed fields. The grass can grow on land, but only where the water table is close to the surface and does not subside for any length of time, e.g., in sedge meadows and fens (Christiansen and Hancke 1993, 89*). The common reed is now found throughout the world." ^{[Ratsch EPP]} "Little data exist for yields from managed stands. In the harvest of natural stands, however, productivity is consistently estimated to be about 10 dry tons per hectare. There is current use and broader interest in the manufacture of paper and other cellulose derivatives from this plant." ^{[Saline Agriculture]} "Typha, Arundo, and Phragmites are usually propagated vegetatively, but also techniques for micropropagation from callus have been described (40). The latter method is advantageous as it allows for the rapid complementation of the detoxification pathway." ^{[Willey PMR]}

"Group II Hydro-halophytes: Species within this group that has C3 photosynthesis occur in wet to standing water, varying from freshwater to brackish water marshes, ditches, around seeps and springs. They can tolerate up to 10,000 ppm of salts and more. The main species include Phragmites australis; P. communis;... Arundo spp.; Typha spp." ^{[Ozturk PPT]}

Allelochemicals: "The allelochemicals of Phragmites communis reduced the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and peroxidase (POD), as also declined the scavenging ability of reactive oxygen species to disorganize the cell redox state causing cell death (Li and Hu 2005). " ^{[Cheema Allelopathy]} "... ethyl 2-methylacetoacetate (EMA) from the common reed, Phragmites australis (Li and Hu, 2005), amongst others." ^{[Ross PIP]} "Typha, similar to Phragmites, colonizes no running water. Both of them are known as allelopathically active against algae; however, they become effective when plants cover more than 25% of the water surface." ^[SoilBio-30]

Genetic Variability: "In some cases, only a nonnative genetic strain of a species shows invasive tendencies while native populations are not a problem. An example is giant reed grass (Phragmites communis). For years it was not known if it was a native or introduced. We now know there are both strains with important differences, and these genotypes have hybridized allowing the genes causing invasiveness to enter our native population." ^{[Apfelbaum TREHL]} "Waisel (1972) found that seeds collected from halophytic populations of Limonium pruinosum, Alhagi greacorum, Prosopis farcta (syn. Lagonychium farctum), and Phragmites australis (syn. P. communis) germinate better under saline conditions than do seeds from glycophytic ecotypes of the same species. He stated that generalisation about the matter is still speculative as different modes of adaptation can be found among various ecotypes within one species." ^{[Batanouny PDME]}

Accumulator: of Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, S, V, Zn, Cd. ^{[Mgobozi][Hasegawa ERTMCS]} "Kunito et al. (2001) compared the characteristics of bacterial communities in the rhizosphere of Phragmites with those of nonrhizosphere soil in a highly Cu-contaminated area near a copper mine in Japan. Phragmites is an important plant for phytoremediation applications, but does not hyperaccumulate heavy metals. Higher bacterial numbers were detected in the rhizosphere, which may be due to the lower Cu concentrations or to the availability of root exudates." ^[SoilBio-13]

• "Phragmites australis is effective for removing heavy metals from the industrial wastewater under arid and semi-arid conditions. Hg and As accumulations in belowground tissues were higher than those for the aboveground tissues (Afrous et al. 2011)." ^{[Dhir PRAPECU]} "Ravit and co-workers (2005) demonstrated that Spartina alterniflora and Phragmites australis influenced the microbial community ability to dehalogenate tetrabromobisphenol-A (TBBPA), the dehalogenation of TBBPA being faster in Spartina alterniflora sediments than in Phragmites australis sediments or non-colonized sediments. Ribeiro and co-workers (2011) found that Juncus maritimus, Triglochin striata, and Phragmites australis exhibited consistent differences in the levels of hydrocarbon degraders. However, all the plants presented higher levels of those microorganisms in their rhizosediment than in the bulk sediment, confirming that microbial colonization of salt marsh sediments was promoted by salt marsh plants which, combined with plants’ ability to accumulate hydrocarbons, can enhance the removal and degradation of those pollutants." ^{[Gupta HMSP]}
• "Out of the five plant species, Phragmites australies had the greatest removal capabilities for uranium (820 lg), thorium (103 lg) and lead (1,870 lg)." ^{[Gupta RCRTP]}
• As; 119.55 mg kg−1 dry wt. Windham et al. (2001, 2003) ^{[Dhir PRAPECU]}
• Hg; 6.23 mg kg−1 dry wt. Afrous et al. (2011) ^{[Dhir PRAPECU]} "Anjun and coworkers (2012) report that P. australis has enough potential to be used for mercury stabilization due to the high accumulation of this metal in its roots. On the other hand, Almeida et al. (2011) reported that, considering the biomass of each plant in a given salt marsh, significant metal burden can be observed not only in the belowground structures but also in the aboveground structures despite the low metal translocation observed in these plants." ^{[Gupta HMSP]}
• Atrzaine: "Decontamination of water polluted with 6 ppm atrazine by several marsh plants, common club-rush (Schoenoplectus lacustris), bulrush (Typha latifolia), yellow iris (Iris pseudacorus), common reed (Phragmites australis) was observed and the disappearance of atrazine from water is a result of the action of rhizosphere micro-organisms (7)." ^{[Willey PMR]}
• TNT: "Working on degradation of TNT through plants, such as, Phragmites australis, Juncus glaucus, Carex gracillis and Typha latifolia, Vanek et al. (2006) observed a maximum of 90 % of TNT transformation within 10 days of cultivation. Among four plants, the most potential degrader was found to be Phragmites australis which transformed about 90 % of TNT within 10 days and 4-amino-2,6-dinitrotoluene (4-ADNT) and 2-amino-4,6-dinitrotoluene (2-ADNT) were the first stable products formed during the degradation process." ^{[Singh BRER]}

Effects of Toxins on Phragmites:

• "Toxic signs were observed at the Phragmites australis after the addition of AO7 [ azo dye Acid Orange 7] into the wetland reactors, but it adapted to the wastewater with passage of time. The presence of Phragmites australis had a significant impact on the removal of organic matters, AO7, aromatic amines and NH4–N (Davies et al. 2005)." ^{[Dhir PRAPECU]}
• "An increase of SOD, APX and CAT activities in Phragmites australis treated with Cd was observed in all parts of the plant (roots, stolons and leaves) in spite of the fact that most of the cadmium was accumulated in roots (Iannelli et al., 2002)." ^{[Golubev HP]} "Histolocalization experiments involving transmission electron microscopy (TEM) indicate the presence of cadmium deposits in the vacuoles of the exodermal cells in Phragmites australis. This shows that roots, as a tolerance mechanism, store the cadmium in the vacuole to protect the cytoplasm from its adverse effects (Ederli et al., 2004)." ^{[Lichtfouse OF]}
• "...innate tolerance to metals has been described in Typha latifolia and Phragmites australis, where different populations showed similar growth responses, metal uptake, and indices of metal tolerance under the same pollution conditions (McNaughton et al. 1974; Ye at al. 1997, 1998)." ^{[Gupta HMSP]}
• "The results indicated a possible radio-accumulating ability of a common reed grown on a deposit U-mill tailings. Although it is known that lead ions hardly accumulate in the plant tissues, specific physiological characteristics of common reed could influence a higher content of 210Pb in the leaves. On the other hand, low content of uranium in the leaves and stems may be connected to not bioavailable form of uranium in the deposit tailings. The stem has a transport function and translocates nutrients to different tissues. Thus, the presence of small amounts of radionuclides in the stems is logical. Higher potassium content in the deposit tailings could be related to higher potassium content in the uranium ore, and it was obviously not in bioavailable form as potassium in the marsh soil of control site, where one or two orders of magnitude higher activity concentrations of potassium were measured in the plants. The accumulation properties of common reed could be useful in phytoremediation of mine waters or for bioindication of radionuclides in such waters." ^{[Gupta RCRTP]}
• "Antioxidant activity in leaves and chloroplast of Phragmites australis was associated with a large pool of GSH, protecting the activity of many photosynthetic enzymes against the thiophilic bursting of Cd exerting a direct important protective role in the presence of Cd (Pietrini et al. 2003)." ^{[Ashraf PAP]}
• "Translocation of Zn in Phragmites australis seems to be also regulated by similar mechanisms as most of Zn is compartmentalized in roots cortex cells (intercellular space > cell wall > vacuole > cytoplasm) reducing its translocation to the leaves (Jiang and Wang 2008)." ^{[Bini PHE]}
• "Molinia caerulea, Carex flacca, Sanguisorba officinalis, Valeriana officinalis, Phragmites australis – all are almost exclusively found in swamp-like habitats. Those plants are mostly mycorrhizal and often resistant to heavy metals due to increased content of Si in their tissues (Kabata-Pendias and Pendias 2001). They can easily survive periodical changes of water level." ^{[Koltai AMPF]}

Wastewater Filtration:

"Grey water from single households can be purified biologically in special soil filters planted with Phragmites australis, Typha angustifolia or other plants that develop an aerenchym. After removal of most of the pollutants by biofiltration, the purified wastewater seeps into the underground. The natural self-purification capacity of the top soil layers for wastewater components is extended into deeper layers of the soil by improving the oxygen supply via the aerenchym of planted vegetation." ^{[Singleton BB]} "Molinia caerulea, Carex flacca, Sanguisorba officinalis, Valeriana officinalis, Phragmites australis – all are almost exclusively found in swamp-like habitats. Those plants are mostly mycorrhizal and often resistant to heavy metals due to increased content of Si in their tissues (Kabata-Pendias and Pendias 2001). They can easily survive periodical changes of water level." ^{[Lichtfouse AFS]}

"In Estonia the reason for diminishment of coastal meadows and the expansion of the stands of the common reed (Phragmites australis) is the discontinuation of traditional use of grasslands, namely grazing and cutting. Phragmites australis usually produces dense and monocultural stands at the waterline, where species richness is low and it can survive in ungrazed shore meadows, but it suffers from grazing (Tyler, 1969)." ^{[Lillak IEGFB]}

Aphid Host Plant

Phragmites

• Ph. australis (incl. communis, Brachysiphoniella montana; Davatchiaphis persica; stenophylla) Hyadaphis amygdali, pruni; Melanaphis bambusae, elizabethae, donacis; Mordvilkoiella skorkini;
  Rhopalosiphum maidis, padi, rufiabdominale; Schizaphis graminum, hypersiphonata; Sitobion avenae, miscanthi; Tetraneura brachytricha, triangula
• Ph. karka Hyalopterus amygdali, pruni; Melanaphis bambusae
• Ph. longivalvis Brachysiphoniella montana; Hyalopterus pruni
• Ph. mauritianica Hyalopterus pruni; Rhopalosiphum maidis, padi
• Phragmites sp. Sipha maydis ^{[Blackman AWHPS]}

Fungal Assosciation

• "Species of Anthostomella, Chaetomium, Fusarium, Leptosphaeria, Massarina, Ophiobolus, Phaeosphaeria, Phoma, Phomatospora, and Stagonospora appear to have a wide distribution and are commonly found in both tropical and temperate areas. On the other hand, Cladosporium, Cytoplea, Dinemasporium, Frondisphaeria, Gaeumannomyces, and Pleurophragmium appear to occur only on tropical P. australis. Poon and Hyde (1998a) assessed diversity of the fungal mycota found on decaying stems and leaf sheaths of P. australis in two different estuarine habitats. In both habitats, frequently occurring taxa were Aniptodera phragmiticola, Cladosporium sp., Colletotrichum sp., Fusarium sp., Lignicola laevis, Phomopsis sp., and Trichoderma sp." ^{[Dighton TFC]}

Bacterial Assosciation

• Kunito et al. (1997) reported a dominance of Cu-resistant Bacillus spp. in the rhizosphere of Phragmites, whereas nonrhizosphere soil was dominated by Methylobacterium spp.^[SoilBio-13]

Propagation
"Seed - surface sow in spring in a light position. Keep the soil moist by emmersing the pot in 3cm of water. Germination usually takes place quite quickly. Prick out the seedlings into individual pots when they are large enough to handle and plant them out in the summer. Division in spring. Very simple, any part of the root that has a growth bud will grow into a new plant. Larger divisions can be planted out direct into their permanent positions. We have found that it is better to pot up the smaller divisions and grow them on in light shade in a cold frame until they are well established before planting them out in late spring or early summer." ^[PFAF] It rarely produces seed, but spreads by its long horizontal rootstocks.^[EWP] "The plant is propagated primarily vegetatively. The grass can be easily grown from a piece of the root (rhizome). Reeds prefer marshy soil and require a great deal of nutrient-rich water. They are well suited for use as ornamentals in garden ponds. However, they do not tolerate acidic water (Christiansen and Hancke 1993, 89*)." ^{[Ratsch EPP]} Flowers are produced, but seed production is rare; the plant reproduces by fragmentation of the rhizome.^{[BiblePlants]}

Synonyms

• Arundo phragmites.^{[PFAF][HMH Duke]}
• Phragmites australis subsp. australis ^[E-flora]
• Phragmites australis var. berlandieri (Fourn.) C.F. Reed ^[E-flora]
• P. communis. ^{[PFAF]E-flora][HMH Duke]}
  • P. communis var. longivalvis (Steud.) Miq. ^{[HMH Duke]}
  • Phragmites communis subsp. berlandieri (Fourn.) A.& D. L÷ve ^[E-flora]
  • Phragmites communis var. berlandieri (Fourn.) Fern.^[E-flora]
• P. vulgaris. ^[PFAF]
  • P. vulgaris var. longivalvis (Steud.) W. Wight . ^{[HMH Duke]}
• Phragmites phragmites (L.) Karst.^[E-flora]

Other Phragmites Sp.

• Phragmites karka (Poaceae). - Tall Reed
  • "The Hmong take a shoot with mature leaves, pound it, heat it over a fire, and apply it as a poultice to a broken bone." ^{[PPGT Anderson]}
  • Whole plant used medicinally ^{[Rai MPBD]}
  • Remediation of Cr: "...three plant species (Scirpus lacustris, Phragmites karka, and Bacopa monnieri) were found to absorb, translocate, and concentrate Cr in their tissues." ^[SoilBio-19]

Related Journals

• Al-Garni SMS (2006) Increasing NaCl-salt tolerance of a halophytic plant Phragmites australis by mycorrhizal symbiosis. Am-Eurasian J Agric Environ Sci 1:119–126
• Chu WK, Wong MH, Zhang J (2006) Accumulation, distribution and transformation of DDT and PCBs by Phragmites australis and Oriza sativa L.: I. Whole plant study. Enviro Geochem Health 28:159–168
• Hartzendorf T, Rolletschek H (2001) Effects of NaCl-salinity on amino acid and carbohydrate contents of Phragmites australis. Aquat Bot 69:195–208
• Lakatos G, Kiss M, Mezzaros I. Heavy metal content of common reed (Phragmites australis/Cav./Trin. ex Steudel) and its periphyton in Hungarian shallow standing waters. Hydrobiologia 1999;415:47– 53.
• Li FM, Hu HY (2005) Isolation and characterization of a novel antialgal allelochemical from Phragmites communis. Appl Environ Microbiol 71:6545–6553
• Men YJ, Hu HY, Li FM (2006) Effects of an allelopathic fraction from Phragmites communis Trin. on the growth characteristics of Scenedesmus obliquus. Ecol Environ 15:925–929
• Oliveira, R. S., Dodd, J. C., & Castro, P. M. L. (2001). The mycorrhizal status of Phragmites australis in several polluted soils and sediments of an industrialised region of Northern Portugal. Mycorrhiza, 10, 241–247.
• Pflugmacher S , Wiegand C , Beattie KA , Krause E , Steinberg CE , Codd GA . Uptake, effects, and metabolism of cyanobacterial toxins in the emergent reed plant Phragmites australis (cav.) trin. ex steud . Environ Toxicol Chem 2001 ; 20 : 846 – 852 .
• Reed MLE, Warner BG, Glick BR (2005) Plant growth-promoting bacteria facilitate the growth of the common reed Phragmites australis in the presence of copper or polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Curr Microbiol 51:425–429
• Schroder P, Daubner D, Maier H et al (2008) Phytoremediation of organic xenobiotics – Glutathione dependent detoxification in Phragmites plants from European treatment sites. Bioresource
  Technol 99:7183–7191
• Wassel, G. M., S. M. El-Difrawy, & A. A. Saeed 1985 "Alkaloids from the Rhizomes of Phragmites australis CAV." Scientia Pharmaceutica 53: 169— 170.

References

• [E-flora]
  • [1]http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Phragmites%20australis [Accessed: 4/10/2015]
  • [2] Personal Observation and notes. http://www.phytoday.org
  • [3] , http://www.Theplantlist.org, Accessed on April 23, 2014.
  • [4] Vancouver Island Default Map taken from Google Maps, www.google.ca, Accessed May 13, 2014
  • [CPD-E-flora] Canadian Phragmites Database
• AlkChem&PhysioV.7
• [Ayahuasca] Ayahuasca Analogues and Plant-Based Tryptamines, The Best of The Entheogen Review 1992-1999, 2nd Ed. Edited by Jim DeKorne, Davd Aardvark & K. Trout. The Entheogen Review, Sacramento, CA. 1996, 2000, 2002.
• [BiblePlants] Lytton John Musselman (Mary Payne Hogan Professor of Botany in the Department of Biological Sciences at Old Dominion University), Cambridge University Press, 2012, New York, NY
• [Lillak IEGFB] Integrating Efficient Grassland Farming and Biodiversity, Edited by R. Lillak, R. Viiralt, A. Linke, and V. Geherman, EGF 2005, Tartu Estonia
• [PFAF] Phragmites australis Plants for a future, Accessed November 17, 2014
• [Mgobozi]Heavy metal content absorption and medicinal potential of Egeria densa (Planch.) Casp., Vuyokazi Mgobozi, South Africa, 2014
• [Otto 1994] Plants containing entheogenic tryptamines, Ayahuasca Analogues,Jonathan Otto,Natural Products Co., Kennewick,WA, 1994